tify the causes of the problems. In other words, the exter‐nal environment would not be blamed for the abuse. Theprison and its o�cials would assume that somethingwithin the facility led to these issues.

The closed-system models, some of which may seem un‐realistic in the present circumstances, were the productsof the problems and subsequent changes that emergedduring the Industrial Revolution. At the beginning of in‐dustrialization in the mid-1800s, the early factories werehighly ine�cient. There were no documented correctways of doing work. Organizations were constantlythinking of ways to design and manage work to increaseproductivity, with the focus primarily being internal. Thetheories and models that emerged as a result are oftentermed machine models, also popularly known as classicalmodels or traditional models. These models sought tomake organizations run like e�cient, well-oiled ma‐chines by correcting the internal functioning of theorganizations.

The three main sub�elds of the classical perspective arescienti�c management, administrative management,and bureaucratic management. As will be examined, sci‐enti�c management focuses on the productivity of the in‐dividual worker, administrative management focuses onthe functions of the management, and bureaucratic man‐agement focuses on the overall organizational system

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